This study investigates the demand side of vote buying by asking when voters participate in, tolerate, or punish targeted material exchanges for votes. The central question is whether voters view vote buying as substituting for local public goods provision in office or as a signal that candidates will deliver such goods.
Democratic elections promise public benefits to voters, but in many new, rural democracies clientelist networks redirect resources toward private benefits delivered through local patrons. Understanding when politicians invest in public goods versus private patronage matters for debates about accountability, development, and the quality of democratic representation.